| 5. | Answer would ideally include:
· Christianity has its origins in both the Hebrew religion and the era’s various messianic movements. The essay should discuss the relationship between Jews and the Romans as well as the existence of the various mystery religions. The essay should then discuss the theological contributions of Jesus and his teachings, being sure to indicate both the unique and typical aspects of this movement compared with existing Hebrew religion and other messianic movements. The role of Paul in transforming Christianity into a religious movement for both Jews and Gentiles must be considered; his earlier contact with Stoic philosophy and his fundamental reorientation of the religion must be discussed. Finally, Christianity’s success should be explained by considering the religion’s universal message, its appeal among women and inclusion of all social classes, and its strong leadership. External factors, such as the role Roman roads played in its spread and the social conditions of the Mediterranean world at the time, should also be mentioned.
c6- Matching
Use the following to answer questions 1-10:
Select the word or phrase from the Terms section that best matches the definition or example provided in the Definitions section.
Terms
a. Senate
b. consuls
c. patricians
d. plebeians
e. Punic Wars
f. paterfamilias
g. pax Romana
h. Messiah
i. pagan
j. bishop
| 1. | Primary executives in the Roman Republic, elected for one-year terms, who commanded the army in battle, administered state business, and supervised financial affairs. _________________ |
| 2. | The assembly that was the main institution of power in the Roman Republic, originally composed only of aristocrats. _________________ |
| 3. | Originally referring to those who lived in the countryside, the term came to mean those who practiced religions other than Judaism or Christianity. _________________ |
| 4. | A series of three wars between Rome and Carthage in which Rome emerged the victor. _________________ |
| 5. | The Roman hereditary aristocracy, who held most of the political power in the republic. _________________ |
| 6. | In Jewish belief, a savior who would bring a period of peace and happiness for Jews; many Christians came to believe that Jesus was that savior. _________________ |
| 7. | The common people of Rome, who were free but had few of the patricians’ advantages. _________________ |
| 8. | The oldest dominant male of the family, who held great power over the lives of family members. _________________ |
| 9. | The “Roman peace,” a period during the first and second centuries C.E. of political stability and relative peace. _________________ |
| 10. | A Christian Church official with jurisdiction over a certain area and the power to determine the correct interpretation of Christian teachings. _________________ |
Answer Key
| 1. | b. consuls | | 2. | a. Senate | | 3. | i. pagan | | 4. | e. Punic Wars | | 5. | c. patricians | | 6. | h. Messiah | | 7. | d. plebians | | 8. | f. paterfamilias | | 9. | g. pax Romana | | 10. | j. bishop |
c6- Multiple Choice
Choose the letter of the best answer.
| 1. | What was an important difference between the political systems of the Romans and Greeks? | | A) | Some Greek city-states had monarchies, while Roman city-states never did. | | B) | Rome extended citizenship to its conquered peoples, while the Greeks did not. | | C) | Rome had written laws, while no Greek city-states did. | | D) | Greeks endured civil war, while Romans did not. |
| 2. | Other than Greeks, who were the first people to build permanent settlements in Italy? | | A) | Etruscans | | B) | Egyptians | | C) | Hittites | | D) | Persians |
| 3. | The villages that became Rome were located on what river? | | A) | Po | | B) | Tiber | | C) | Danube | | D) | Adige |
| 4. | How are women portrayed in Rome’s founding legends? | | A) | Dominant and superior | | B) | Meek and quiet | | C) | Virtuous and brave | | D) | Conniving and deceitful |
| 5. | According to legend, who founded Rome? | | A) | Latium | | B) | Romulus and Remus | | C) | Domitian | | D) | Silla and Gaulius |
| 6. | According to the most common Roman creation myth, who assisted Rome’s first ruler, Romulus, with the rule of the city? | | A) | He was helped by a council of advisors called the Senate. | | B) | He was assisted by his brother Remus, a military commander. | | C) | He was only able to rule the city with help of the gods. | | D) | He relied heavily on his aristocratic wife and her family. |
| 7. | What is one possible reason that the Romans overthrew the Etruscans in 509 B.C.E.? | | A) | The Etruscans refused to fight with the Romans against the invading Gauls. | | B) | The Etruscan military allied with the Athenians in an effort to expel the Romans. | | C) | Etruscan rulers had become increasingly authoritarian. | | D) | The Etruscans and Carthaginians allied to undermine the Roman economy. |
| 8. | Which of the following was true of Roman religion? | | A) | It was a deeply reflective religion emphasizing inner piety. | | B) | It was largely a matter or rites and ceremonies, not inner piety. | | C) | It was centered on ancestor worship. | | D) | It advocated human sacrifice. |
| 9. | What did Romans, like the Persians, do once they conquered an area? | | A) | They killed the men and took the women as slaves. | | B) | They built large temples to please the gods and ensure success. | | C) | They forced the men to serve in the Roman military. | | D) | They built roads to facilitate communication and trade. |
| 10. | How was Roman society divided in the early republic? | | A) | Into two groups—the patricians and the plebeians | | B) | Between Roman citizens and non-Romans who were seen as subject peoples | | C) | Between urban and rural dwellers | | D) | Between Roman citizens and their slaves |
| 11. | In the early republic, which group controlled political power and military leadership? | | A) | Plebeians | | B) | Etruscan nobles | | C) | Patricians | | D) | Merchants |
| 12. | During the republic, which of the following was true of the Roman Senate? | | A) | Its only function was to pass legislation. | | B) | It had little power and was advised by consuls. | | C) | Like the consuls, it changed its membership annually. | | D) | One of its chief responsibilities was to advise officials and consuls. |
| 13. | Why was the ius gentium important to Roman society? | | A) | It covered both Roman citizens and foreigners as a kind of universal law. | | B) | It was the first written law code in the Mediterranean world. | | C) | It limited the rights of patricians and elevated plebeians. | | D) | It provided for the impeachment of the consuls. |
| 14. | During the Struggle of the Orders, how did the plebeians force political concessions? | | A) | Plebian farmers refused to sell agricultural goods to the cities. | | B) | All plebeians declined to pay annual taxes and local fees. | | C) | Plebian men refused to serve in the military. | | D) | Plebian leaders ordered the assassination of several senators and consuls. |
| 15. | What was recorded on the Twelve Tables? | | A) | Myths | | B) | Prayers | | C) | Religious texts | | D) | Laws |
| 16. | One result of the Struggle of the Orders was the creation of a law code that made all | | A) | plebeians more powerful than patricians. | | B) | patricians more powerful than plebeians. | | C) | Roman-born citizens more important than foreigners. | | D) | citizens, plebeian and patrician, equal before the law. |
| 17. | In the third century B.C.E., the main challenge to Roman control of the Mediterranean came from which of the following? | | A) | Ptolemaic Egypt | | B) | Carthage | | C) | Alexandria | | D) | Macedonia |
| 18. | The First Punic War ended with a Roman victory and the creation of Rome’s first | | A) | monarchy. | | B) | diplomatic corps. | | C) | navy. | | D) | hospitals. |
| 19. | Who was the Carthaginian general who brought the Second Punic War to the gates of Rome? | | A) | Scipio Aemilianus | | B) | Pyrrhus | | C) | Tarquin the Proud | | D) | Hannibal |
| 20. | What was one reason Hannibal failed to win the Second Punic War? | | A) | Carthage never recovered from the loss at Cannae. | | B) | His allies failed to provide food and supplies for his troops. | | C) | He failed to form an alliance with Rome’s neighbors. | | D) | He was unable to get his army across the Alps into Italy. |
| 21. | In Roman families, what was the paterfamilias? | | A) | The oldest dominant male in a family, who had near absolute power | | B) | A family council that was composed of all adult males | | C) | The marriage contract between husband and wife | | D) | The male family member who was entitled to vote for public office |
| 22. | What was relatively unusual about women in Roman families? | | A) | They seldom ventured outside their homes. | | B) | They were not allowed to learn to read or write. | | C) | They had no role in raising their children. | | D) | They were able to inherit and own property. |
| 23. | How did Romans view slavery during the republic? | | A) | The only people who could be taken as slaves were North Africans. | | B) | It was viewed as a lifelong condition for the enslaved. | | C) | It was an unfortunate state but one from which a slave might become free. | | D) | It became less economically important over time as Rome grew to include more citizens. |
| 24. | To what does the term latifundia refer? | | A) | All lands conquered by Roman armies | | B) | A new social class primarily created by imperial expansion | | C) | Huge agricultural estates created by warfare and absentee farmers | | D) | Lands given to returning soldiers as payment for their service |
| 25. | What was the main feature of the reform program proposed by Tiberius Gracchus? | | A) | To provide free bread to the poor of Rome | | B) | To redistribute public land to poor Romans | | C) | To abolish the class distinctions of patricians and plebeians | | D) | To establish colonies populated by ex-soldiers and their families |
| 26. | How did Gaius Marius recruit men to serve in an African campaign? | | A) | He promised them citizenship. | | B) | He recruited them by paying them gold coins. | | C) | He offered to pardon them if they had been criminals. | | D) | He promised land to landless men in return for their service. |
| 27. | What did Julius Caesar do once he became leader of Rome? | | A) | He enacted a series of basic reforms throughout the empire. | | B) | He stripped citizenship from people living in the empire but outside Italy. | | C) | He ended all colonization efforts in Gaul, Spain, and North Africa. | | D) | He ordered dozens of assassinations of his principal political opponents. |
| 28. | What was one of Augustus’s important military reforms? | | A) | He created an all-volunteer force. | | B) | He developed an all-mercenary force. | | C) | He assembled an all-plebeian army. | | D) | He began a permanent standing army. |
| 29. | What does the phrase Roma et Augustus mean? | | A) | It is the title of an historical account of Augustus’s reign by Tacitus. | | B) | It is an epic poem of Augustus’s deeds written by Virgil. | | C) | It means that the empire was divinely ordained. | | D) | It refers to the cult of the emperor and the state. |
| 30. | Under Augustus, women could be freed from male guardianship if they | | A) | had a certain number of children. | | B) | were related to Augustus. | | C) | had a son killed in a war. | | D) | bought their freedom from the state. |
| 31. | The Aeneid emphasized the parallels between Aeneas and Dido in the poem and what pair in real life? | | A) | Romulus and Remus | | B) | Antony and Cleopatra | | C) | Augustus and Caesar | | D) | Caesar and Cleopatra |
| 32. | Which emperor transformed the principate into a hereditary monarchy? | | A) | Nero | | B) | Hadrian | | C) | Claudius | | D) | Vespasian |
| 33. | What was an important achievement of the emperor Hadrian? | | A) | He included landless men in the army. | | B) | He defeated the Parthians in a series of naval battles. | | C) | He conquered Gaul, Spain, and the British Isles. | | D) | He established an efficient imperial bureaucracy. |
| 34. | What important improvements in urban planning were made in Rome during the second century C.E.? | | A) | Separate districts were created for different ethnic groups in the cities. | | B) | A new domestic police force was developed in the city of Rome. | | C) | Hundreds of miles of aqueducts and sewers were built. | | D) | Streets were made straight, and all roads and streets were paved. |
| 35. | How did Rome solve the problem of feeding its growing population? | | A) | Emperors provided free bread, olive oil, and wine to the population. | | B) | Leaders started subsidizing the cost of basic commodities. | | C) | Emperors combined small tenant farms into huge agricultural operations. | | D) | The Senate forced thousands of residents out of the city to colonize the frontiers. |
| 36. | Who was largely responsible for the new burst of expansion in continental Europe in the second century C.E.? | | A) | Colonists from the capital | | B) | Greek Hellenists | | C) | Retired soldiers | | D) | Small farmers |
| 37. | During the pax Romana, what regions were the major grain producers of the empire? | | A) | Gaul and Italy | | B) | Southern Spain and Italy | | C) | Egypt and Syria | | D) | Britain and Belgium |
| 38. | Who played the role of middlemen between the Romans and the Chinese in the trade along the Silk Road? | | A) | Indians | | B) | Goths | | C) | Parthians | | D) | Jews |
| 39. | Who were the Zealots? | | A) | People who wanted to expel the Romans from Judea | | B) | A group that believed that Jesus was the Messiah | | C) | Followers of a new mystery religion | | D) | A group that felt Christ’s message applied only to Jews |
| 40. | Who or what did militant Jews believe would come and destroy the Roman Empire? | | A) | The Messiah | | B) | The son of God | | C) | A plague inflicted by God | | D) | An army of angels |
| 41. | What did the mystery religions offer adherents in the Roman Empire? | | A) | Access to political power | | B) | The promise of eternal life | | C) | Independence from the state | | D) | Veneration of the state |
| 42. | What writings provide the historical documentation of the life of Jesus? | | A) | The sermons he wrote are the main source for his life story. | | B) | The biographies written by his contemporaries tell his life story. | | C) | The four Gospels of the Bible provide the principal evidence for his life and deeds. | | D) | Accounts written by Pontius Pilate provide the most comprehensive information. |
| 43. | Why did Pontius Pilate condemn Jesus to death? | | A) | He believed Jesus was the Messiah. | | B) | He was an adherent of the mystery religions. | | C) | He was told to do it by the emperor Tiberius. | | D) | He was concerned with maintaining social order. |
| 44. | What was one of the primary early rituals celebrated by Christians? | | A) | Re-creating the preaching of Jesus | | B) | Visiting the site of the crucifixion | | C) | Protest marches against the Romans | | D) | A commemorative meal |
| 45. | What did Paul of Tarsus advocate with regard to Christian ideals? | | A) | That Christ’s teachings should be proclaimed to all | | B) | That Christianity should be used to defeat Rome | | C) | That Christ’s message applied only to Jews | | D) | That Christians should avoid contact with pagans |
| 46. | Which of the following generally characterized the relationship between Christians and Roman pagans? | | A) | There was increasing pagan toleration with sporadic outbursts of persecution. | | B) | Unrelenting pagan persecution continued until the late fourth century. | | C) | Christians often tried to overthrow the state and Romans responded. | | D) | There was mutual understanding and toleration of each other. |
| 47. | What significant political change did Diocletian enact? | | A) | He used the titles “Augustus” and “Caesar.” | | B) | He adopted the court ceremonies of the Persian Empire. | | C) | He converted to Christianity and made it the state religion. | | D) | He divided the Roman Empire into two parts. |
| 48. | What was one of the advantages of the huge estates, or villas, created in the fourth century? | | A) | They were a way peasants could avoid paying taxes. | | B) | They offered protection in an unsettled world. | | C) | They provided the basis for agriculture, trade, and industry. | | D) | They facilitated a process of cultural exchange. |
| 49. | Which of the following was true of the emperor Constantine? | | A) | He supported Christianity. | | B) | He abdicated his power. | | C) | He raised taxes on clergy. | | D) | He was assassinated by the army. |
| 50. | When was Christianity made the official religion of the Roman Empire? | | A) | 337.C.E. | | B) | 380 C.E. | | C) | 405 C.E. | | D) | 418 C.E. |
Answer Key
| 1. | B | | 2. | A | | 3. | B | | 4. | C | | 5. | B | | 6. | A | | 7. | C | | 8. | B | | 9. | D | | 10. | A | | 11. | C | | 12. | D | | 13. | A | | 14. | C | | 15. | D | | 16. | D | | 17. | B | | 18. | C | | 19. | D | | 20. | B | | 21. | A | | 22. | D | | 23. | C | | 24. | C | | 25. | B | | 26. | D | | 27. | A | | 28. | D | | 29. | D | | 30. | A | | 31. | B | | 32. | D | | 33. | D | | 34. | C | | 35. | A | | 36. | C | | 37. | D | | 38. | C | | 39. | A | | 40. | A | | 41. | B | | 42. | C | | 43. | D | | 44. | D | | 45. | A | | 46. | A | | 47. | D | | 48. | B | | 49. | A | | 50. | B |
c6- Short Answer
Answer each question with three or four sentences.
| 1. | What developments in the Roman military during the early republic made it so effective and for such a long time? |
| 2. | Explain how the Roman Senate demonstrated Roman ideals related to shared government. |
| 3. | Explain why Rome and Carthage were natural rivals and why the Roman victory in the Punic Wars led to the establishment of Roman control of the Mediterranean world. |
| 4. | What was the significance of Augustus’s rule? In the long run, did he help or hurt the Roman Empire? |
| 5. | What do the terms princeps civitatis, principate, and Roma et Augustus tell us about Augustus’s power? |
| 6. | Describe the Roman family structure. What role did women play? |
| 7. | How was the Roman road system used to create, expand, and maintain the empire? |
| 8. | Discuss the aspects of Jesus’s teaching and life that were Jewish in origin, and how he differed from Jewish orthodoxy. |
| 9. | How did the Roman Empire influence the development of Christianity? |
| 10. | What were some of the economic hardships faced by the Roman Empire in the fourth century C.E. onward? |
Answer Key
| 1. | Answer would ideally include:
· The Romans fought many wars in their conquest of Italy and their empire, which taught them the skills of diplomacy and determination. Citizens made up most of the army, and the wealthy bought their own weapons and armor. With strict organization and by quickly learning the value of alliances, the Romans were able to conquer Italy by about 265 B.C.E. | | 2. | Answer would ideally include:
· The Romans were determined to avoid the authoritarian style of government of the Etruscans, and they sought to find a system of government in which power and responsibility were shared. Although the Senate did not pass legislation, it advised consuls and other officials. The fact that senators served life terms provided stability in a system where consuls changed annually. In this way, multiple individuals shared responsibility for maintaining the republic’s civic, religious, and social duties. | | 3. | Answer would ideally include:
· Shortly after establishing their republic and defeating the Etruscans, the Romans moved into southern Italy. Expansion into the Mediterranean brought them into direct trade competition and ultimately conflict with Carthage, a city in North Africa. The Carthaginians engaged in a series of wars to create a large trade empire that stretched from Sicily to Gibraltar. They posed a threat to the ambitious Romans who defeated the Carthaginians in the Punic Wars. As a result of Rome’s victory in the Punic Wars, Rome established a Mediterranean trade empire and was drawn into conflict with Greece and other Mediterranean powers. | | 4. | Answer would ideally include:
· Augustus restored many of the offices and forms of the republic and simultaneously transformed the republic to an empire by creating a kind of monarchy with himself in the center. The army was loyal to him on a personal level, and he created a stable government. In the short term, his victory over Marc Antony at Actium (in 27 B.C.E.) ended the civil wars of the late republic, and he was able to restore peace and order. Despite his ability to rule efficiently, however, he created precedents that led to problems after his rule. In the government he created, all power was held by a single ruler, and rulers could more easily use the army to manipulate power through personal loyalty. Although he reformed the Senate, he didn’t give it enough power to carry out its duties, which left it vulnerable to ambitious military leaders. | | 5. | Answer would ideally include:
· In order to fit his growing position into the republican constitution, Augustus maintained titles traditional to the republic. In this way, he kept his power in the background and avoided the appearance of a monarchical or authoritarian rule, even as he created the office of emperor. Initially, Augustus was given the honorary title princeps civitatis (“first citizen of the state”) by the Senate. This was in keeping with the idea of Augustus as the leader of a principate or the “first among equals.” The cult of Roma et Augustus (Rome and Augustus) demonstrated the growth of Augustus’s power as it spread through the empire and became a symbol of Roman unity. This cult portrayed Augustus as the guardian of the state and firmly tied his image to that of Rome. | | 6. | Answer would ideally include:
· The Roman family structure was headed by the paterfamilias, or oldest dominant male of the family, who held nearly absolute power over the lives of his family members. No son could legally own property until his father’s death, and most important matters were settled by a council of the family’s adult males. Although Roman women had no part in these family councils, they could inherit and own property. Women gained respect for being virtuous and loyal to their husbands and for their role as mothers with responsibility for raising children. | | 7. | Answer would ideally include:
· Similar to the Persians, Romans built roads throughout the areas they conquered to facilitate communication and trade between different parts of the state. For example, Roman soldiers built roads to connect fortified camps and constantly improved roads such as those behind Hadrian’s Wall. The road system allowed the Roman army to move about more easily and Romans ideas, like Christianity, to spread. Roads also impressed the conquered peoples and brought them benefits from being conquered. During the empire, the roads were expanded for tens of thousands of miles, bringing people from all parts of Europe in direct contact with each other for the first time. | | 8. | Answer would ideally include:
· Jesus believed in a single God and preached a life of morality, both of which are concepts that came from Jewish tradition. His beliefs were derived from the Jewish scriptures. Unlike most Jewish preachers, however, Jesus taught in his own name, not in the name of Yahweh, and he claimed to be the Messiah (another Jewish concept) who was promised in the Jewish scriptures as coming to build a new Jewish kingdom; many followers supported his claim. Jesus promised a heavenly kingdom rather than an earthly one. | | 9. | Answer would ideally include:
· The early practice of mystery religions made Romans familiar with such Christian concepts as eternal life. Persecutions also played a role as Christians saw themselves as invincible—nothing could set them back. The size of the Roman Empire gave Christians a wide territory in which to work and live. Roman roads were important for spreading the faith. The emperor Constantine supported the church and expected support in return. His adoption of Christianity was part of his strategy to present himself as God’s appointed ruler on earth, an ideology of political legitimization that dominated the next 1,300 or 1,400 years of European history. | | 10. | Answer would ideally include:
· Emperors of the late empire needed more revenue to support the army and their courts, but agriculture and commerce, the two main sources of imperial revenue, were strained by wars and invasions. City markets lacked goods for trade, and travel between cities was dangerous; thus, overall trade was reduced. Some areas were so unstable that many families moved out; in other instances, thousands were killed by invading armies. Coins were devalued, which caused inflation. Furthermore, the monetary system was abandoned in some areas, and payment in kind (payment by goods or services) became the norm. |
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