Chapter Six
Authority
Teaching Authority:
To begin the topic of authority, I show the Milgram documentary “Obedience.” Depending upon
the class, the Milgram obedience studies can also be used to discuss research ethics.
Authority – Milgram
• Predictions and results:
– Yale faculty, grad students, psych
majors: 1-2%
– Psychiatrists: 1/1000
– Actual: 65%
• Additional evidence:
– Researcher and victim switched scripts
– Researcher and confederate switched
roles
– Two researchers giving conflicting
orders
– Replicated using female participants
– Replicated in Holland, Germany,
Spain, Italy, Australia, and Jordan
– Replicated many features more
recently (Burger, in press)
Perhaps the most dramatic demonstration of authority in a research laboratory is Milgram’s series of obedience
studies. No one predicted the alarming rate of obedience. Yale faculty, graduate students, and psychology majors
predicted 1-2%. Psychiatrists predicted 1/1000. The actual rate was 65%.
Evidence that it was the authority: (a) Researcher and victim switched scripts. When the researcher said to stop
and the victim said to go on, 100% stopped (i.e., still followed the authority). (b) Researcher and confederate
switched roles. Now, the researcher was the learner. As soon as the researcher/learner protested, all participants
stopped (i.e., again, followed authority). (c) When two researchers gave conflicting orders, participants begged for
them to come to a consensus. When they refused, all participants stopped (when no clear authority, participants
follow the authority they agreed with). (d) Replicated using female participants (so, not just because participants
were more sadistic because they were male). (e) Replicated in Holland, Germany, Spain, Italy, Australia, and
Jordan (so not a unique feature of the participants’ nationality). (f) Replicated many features recently (so we know
it’s not just a feature of the time period).
By this point in the semester, the question of ethics in the use of the weapons of influence has usually arisen.
Cialdini has also considered this issue and has suggested a distinction that is useful for both influence
professionals and influence targets. I have found that this is a good point to discuss the issue explicitly.
Now I would like to introduce a distinction that is valid for many persuasive techniques, but easiest to see with
authority. A pair of classic television commercials illustrates this distinction. The old Trident commercial, which
stated that, “4 out of 5 dentists surveyed recommend sugarless gum for their patients who chew gum,” used
authority appropriately because the experts cited (dentists) could speak with true authority about the advantages of
the product (sugarless gum). In contrast, the Sanka commercial in which Robert Young educated a coffee drinker
about the dangers of caffeine and the advantages of caffeine-free Sanka, used authority objectionably. The actor
was no expert on caffeine, but he, nevertheless, dispensed medical advice – advice that may have misled viewers
familiar with his well-known television role as Marcus Welby, MD.
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Generalized, the rule is as follows:
To the degree that a principle of influence
exists as a natural and representative feature
of the influence situation, it is legitimate for
an influence agent to employ it.
Cialdini, Sagarin, & Rice (2001)
It is illegitimate for an influence agent to
counterfeit or import a principle into a
situation where it does not naturally occur (or
to exaggerate its presence there).
Cialdini, Sagarin, & Rice (2001)
This distinction can be useful as a guide for compliance professionals as to when it is proper to use a persuasive
technique. But it can also help targets of persuasion resist inappropriate attempts to manipulate them.
Trappings of Authority
• Titles make you taller (Wilson, 1968)
• Titles prevent others from questioning
instructions (Cohen & Davis, 1981;
Hofling et al., 1966)
• Fancy cars get you deference (Doob &
Gross, 1968)
Titles make you taller (Wilson, 1968). A man was introduced to a class as a visitor from Cambridge University in
England. He was introduced as a student, demonstrator, lecturer, senior lecturer, or professor. After the talk, the
class was asked to estimate his height. Each promotion gave him an extra ½ inch! Since 1900, the taller of the
major party candidate has won the presidency 20/23 times.
Titles prevent others from questioning instructions. There exists interesting anecdotal and empirical evidence for
just how disturbingly effective a prestigious title can be in gaining compliance.
One interesting example is reported in a book on the causes and recommendations for the prevention of
Medication Errors (Cohen & Davis, 1981). The authors note how common it is for patients, nurses, pharmacists,
and other physicians to fail to question orders given to them by doctors. In one case, a patient who was suffering
from an ear infection was prescribed ear drops to be administered by a nurse. In writing out the prescription, the
doctor instructed the nurse to administer the drop in the patient’s right ear, or as he had abbreviated it, “R ear”
[write “R ear” on the white/chalkboard, or have it appear on your slide]. Oddly, the nurse, and the patient,
did not question this order as the nurse asked the patient to roll over to receive the drops right where the nurse had
thought they were supposed to go [students quickly figure out what the nurse did].
In another, more chilling, example (Hofling, et al., 1966), nurses in several different hospital wards received
phone calls from a “doctor” whom they had never met, asking them to administer a medication called “Androgen”
that they had never heard of and that had not been placed on a list of approved medications. Furthermore, the
dosage ordered by the doctor was twice that which was labeled as the maximum daily dose on the medicine’s
container. Despite the numerous reasons to question or, better yet, disregard the order until confirmation could be
obtained, after 95% of the phone calls, the nurses collected the medicine and started toward the patient’s room to
administer it before being stopped by a secret observer before any harm could be done.
Fancy cars get you deference (Doob & Gross, 1968). In a study done in the San Francisco Bay Area, motorists
waited significantly longer before honking at a luxury car stopped in front of a green light compared to an older,
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economy car. Nearly all participants honked at the cheap car. Fully 50% didn’t honk even once behind the luxury
car. When Doob and Gross asked college students what they would have done, they consistently underestimated
the time it would take them to honk at the luxury car. Male students were the most inaccurate, stating that they
would honk more quickly at the more prestigious car. As with liking, we seem unaware of the power of authority
in changing our behavior.
When we’re not sheep
• We are more persuaded by experts that
seem to be impartial than by experts who
appear to have something to gain by
convincing us (Eagly, Wood, & Chaiken,
1978)
• This can be circumvented and co-opted
by marketers by having the expert or ad
offer a small argument against their best
interest
When we’re not quite so sheeplike: We are more persuaded by experts that seem to be impartial than by experts
who appear to have something to gain by convincing us (Eagly, Wood, & Chaiken, 1978). But this can be
circumvented and co-opted by marketers by having the expert or ad offer a small argument against their best
interest. For example, ads for burglar alarms sometimes use a thief as the spokesperson.
Defense
• Genuine authority
• Trustworthiness
There are two key tests an authority must pass before we can consider their advice to be helpful in guiding our
actions. First, he/she must be a genuine authority. That is, the authority must possess expertise and possess it in an
area relevant to the decision at hand. Second, the authority should not have a reason to mislead you. A true
authority should have informed, unbiased opinions to be truly trusted. In addition, we must take special care not to
fall for tricks that lead a biased authority to only seem to have balanced opinions, such as initially providing a
small argument against his/her own self-interest.
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Testing Authority:
6.1 The extreme obedience to an authority figure ordering a participant to administer
dangerous shocks in Milgram’s famous shock experiments goes away when
(a) the orders are no longer given by an authority from a prestigious university (Yale).
(b) a second authority contradicts the authority ordering the shocks.
(c) women are asked to administer the shocks instead of men
(d) All of the above
ANSWER: B
6.2 Which of the following was suggested in Influence as evidence for the automatic
acceptance of authority directives in health contexts?
(a) The case of the “rectal ear ache.”
(b) The results of the Hofling et al. study on nurses’ obedience to a phoned-in prescription
for giving medication to a patient.
(c) The success of the Robert Young Sanka commercials.
(d) All of the above.
(e) Only a and b.
ANSWER: D
6.3 What do the studies by Milgram (on shock-giving), Hofling et al. (on the nurse-physician
relationship), Bickman (on the power of a uniform), and Doob and Gross (on horn-honking
at a traffic light) have in common? They all:
(a) demonstrate the effect of authority influence on human behavior.
(b) show that males and females react differently to authority influence.
(c) show that people typically underestimate the strength of authority on behavior.
(d) all of the above.
(e) only a and c.
ANSWER: E
6.4 According to Influence, in deciding whether to accept authority influence in a situation, we
should ask ourselves certain questions. Which of the below is not one of those questions?
(a) What can I do to become an authority here in the future?
(b) Is this authority truly an expert here?
(c) How truthful can I expect the authority to be here?
(d) Both b and c.
ANSWER: A
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6.5 Advertisers, as well as waiters and waitresses, have found a technique for quickly
increasing their trustworthiness in the eyes of an audience. It involves:
(a) arguing earnestly for the virtues of their product.
(b) saying how intelligent they think the audience is.
(c) arguing initially against their own interests by mentioning a minor problem with their
product.
(d) saying how dependent they are on the audience.
(e) arguing first for the virtues of their product and then mentioning a minor problem with
it.
ANSWER: C
6.6 Which of the following is true regarding behavior toward motorists who fail to drive
forward at a green light in economy vs. luxury cars?
(a) People react more strongly to the economy car than the luxury car, and predict this is
how they would behave.
(b) People react more strongly to the economy car than the luxury car, but do not predict
this is how they would behave.
(c) People react more strongly to the luxury car than the economy car, and predict this is
how they would behave.
(d) People react more strongly to the luxury car than the economy car, but do not predict
this is how they would behave.
ANSWER: B
6.7 Which of the following can reliably trigger our compliance with an “authority”?
(a) Titles
(b) Clothes
(c) Trappings
(d) All of the above
(e) Both a and c
ANSWER: D
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6.8 Someone attempting to sell a car that is more expensive than a competitor’s car, but
superior in quality would be most persuasive by
(a) first revealing that the car is pricier, then describing how it is superior
(b) first describing how the car is superior, then revealing that it is pricier
(c) only revealing that it is pricier
(d) A and B would work equally well, but not C
ANSWER: A
6.9 Which of the following is false regarding our willingness to comply with authorities?
(a) It is taught in schools, at home, and by religious organizations.
(b) It confers immense advantages upon a society.
(c) We sometimes comply with authorities in an automatic, mindless fashion.
(d) We are almost always aware of the effect that authorities have on our behavior.
(e) None of the above; all are true regarding our willingness to comply with authorities.
ANSWER: D
6.10 In Milgram’s original obedience study, participants drew lots to determine if they would be
the Teacher or the Learner. What happened?
(a) Participants were always the Learner
(b) Participants were always the Teacher
(c) Participants were sometimes the Learner and sometimes the Teacher, but the study only
continued if they were the Teacher.
(d) None of the above.
ANSWER: B
6.11 Which of the following is the most plausible explanation for the results of Milgram’s series
of studies?
(a) The participants were all males, a group known for their aggressive tendencies.
(b) The participants didn’t recognize the potential harm that such high shock voltages could
cause.
(c) The participants grew up during a unique time when orders were not questioned.
(d) The participants were unable to defy the wishes of the boss, the lab-coated researcher.
(e) All of the above
ANSWER: D
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6.12 Which of the following is true regarding the effect of authority?
(a) It has an effect even when the “authority” just plays an authority on television or in a
movie.
(b) People can accurately predict its effect on their behavior, but are affected by it anyway
(c) The same message is equally effective whether it comes from someone who is
obviously biased in their opinions or unbiased.
(d) All of the above
ANSWER: A
6.13 Influence by way of being an authority occurs when the authority’s expertise is
(a) closely related to the message they are conveying
(b) unrelated to the message they are conveying.
(c) simulated through the clothing being worn
(d) A and B only
(e) All of the above
ANSWER: E
6.14 Which of the following is false regarding the effects of size?
(a) Research has demonstrated that if a man is introduced with a more impressive title,
people perceive him as taller.
(b) Research has demonstrated that women are significantly more likely to respond to a
man’s published personal ad when he describes himself as tall.
(c) Research has demonstrated that after winning an election, politicians become taller in
the eyes of the citizenry.
(d) None of the above; all are true regarding the effects of size
ANSWER: D
6.15 Instead of being introduced as a fellow student, John is introduced to a group of students as
a professor. As a result, the students are likely to
(a) be more persuaded by him
(b) perceive him as taller
(c) like him more
(d) all of the above
(e) both a and b
ANSWER: E
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Chapter Seven
Scarcity
Teaching Scarcity:
Scarcity is one of my favorite topics to present—there are so many examples to choose from. I
use two: the well-known Beanie Baby phenomenon and my own personal run-in with scarcity.
Let’s talk Beanie Babies. Anyone in here collect Beanies? What’s the story? Often, the class has a collector or
two that are willing to wax eloquent about the phenomenon. Ty, Inc. is the maker of Beanie Babies. They are
admittedly cute stuffed animals. But when I went to their web site (http://www.ty.com/), I found something
strange: 1 page of current Beanie Babies, and 6 pages of retired Beanie Babies.
Why would they retire Beanie Babies? Once they’re retired, they become more valuable.
Here’s a price list from a-pile-o-beanies.com (http://www.a-pile-o-beanies.co...). I put up an slide with the price
list. Anyone know a valuable Beanie? Even I’ve heard of Peanut, the royal blue elephant: $3900. But be careful,
Peanut the light blue elephant is worth only $12. #1 Bear: $10,000
But my favorite is the Billionaire Bear: $2400. This one is special because it is a direct demonstration of the
power that Ty, Inc. now possesses. Billionaire Bear was the employee Christmas bonus a year or two ago. Each
employee got 2. The Billionaire Bear cost Ty about $.50/employee. But the employees got a $5000 bonus.
Ty is printing money!
A man made $1,000,000 selling plastic tag protectors for Beanie Babies.
By this point, someone in class has inevitably raised the good point that a posted price list on the Internet is
not a particularly reputable source. So, before class, I do some searches on Ebay (http://www.ebay.com) to
locate some open Beanie Baby auctions. I make slides of a few, choice examples. Ebay had thousands of
Beanies for auction. Web the Spider: $355.00 current bid. 4 days, 4 hours left! Peanut the Royal Blue Elephant:
$2800 (no bids yet). #1 Rep Bear on sale last year: $2650.00 current bid – reserve not yet met.
Before I completely alienate any Beanie fans in class, let me say that of all the persuasive tactics, scarcity is the
one I’m most susceptible to. The funny thing about scarcity is that from the outside, people falling for scarcity
look ridiculous. But it sure doesn’t feel that way from the inside.
My personal example of scarcity is a $125 Attack from Mars jacket. I wear the jacket to class on the day we
start to talk about scarcity. Take, for example, this fine jacket I’m wearing. I’ll bet you’re envious. Well guess
what, you can’t even buy one like this anymore.
And that’s why I own it.
As I’ve admitted earlier, I’m into pinball. And one of the best games to come out in recent years is “Attack from
Mars.” There was a rumor on rec.games.pinball about special AFM jackets. Searching on the Williams web site
revealed a limited time offer. One set of jackets would be made – just enough to fill the orders, and then no more.
Ever.
Well, I had to have one. I don’t want to tell you what I paid for it. And I’ve worn it … let’s see … counting today
… once.
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Scarcity:
Opportunities seem more valuable to us when
they are less available
Before going into the theory, let’s put some more examples on the table. Don’t worry. I won’t force you to reveal
your own embarrassing scarcity stories. [The class divides into groups of 3-4 and discusses the following
questions.]
Name three (or more) examples of valuable
items that are scarce:
1)
2)
3)
Name at least three examples of items with
little or no intrinsic value that are valuable
simply because they are scarce:
1)
2)
3)
[When the students are finished, we discuss their answers, which I write down on two slides:]
Valuable items that are scarce:
Items that are valuable solely because they
are scarce:
Scarcity
• Scarcity makes cafeteria food more
palatable (West, 1975)
• Threats of loss are more persuasive than
equivalent promises of gain (Tversky &
Kahneman, 1981)
• “Limited-number” tactic
• Time limits
Scarcity makes cafeteria food more palatable (West, 1975) – Florida State University students were surveyed
about their cafeteria food. Most rated it as unsatisfactory. Less than two weeks later, they had changed their
minds, rating the food as significantly better than before. The food service hadn’t changed. What did happen was
that because of a fire, students would be unable to eat in the cafeteria for the next two weeks.
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Threats of loss are more persuasive than equivalent promises of gain (Tversky & Kahneman, 1981). This makes
sense because, normally, throughout human history, losing an important resource has typically been more costly
than gaining one (Haselton & Nettle, 2006) Homeowners told how much money they could lose from inadequate
insulation were more likely to insulate than those told how much money they could save (Gonzales, Aronson &
Costanzo, 1988). However, at the same time, it is more difficult to disrupt good decision-making when the
decision regards a loss as opposed to a gain (Weller et al., 2007)
“Limited-number” tactic. Knowing I study persuasion, a friend described an ad she had seen that pictured 25
televisions, some of which were marked “sold out.” Why would the advertisers have wasted ad space on items
that were sold out?
Time limits: “One-day sale” “This price is for today only” Anyone have any car dealership war stories?
Reactance (Brehm, 1966)
• Whenever free choice is limited or
threatened, the need to retain our
freedoms makes us want them (as well
as the goods and services associated with
them) significantly more than before.
• Reactance increases the desire and
perceived worth of banned things
(Mazis, 1975).
• When our desire increases, we begin
assigning the desired object positive
qualities.
Brehm (1966): Whenever free choice is limited or threatened, the need to retain our freedoms makes us want them
(as well as the goods and services associated with them) significantly more than before.
Reactance increases the desire and perceived worth of banned things (Mazis, 1975). Dade County, Florida banned
phosphate-based laundry products. People started smuggling and hoarding phosphate detergents. Families boasted
of having a 20-year supply of detergent. More interesting was that residents began changing their opinions of
phosphate detergents, claiming they were gentler, better whiteners, more powerful on stains, even that they poured
more easily.
When our desire increases, we begin assigning the desired object positive qualities.
Censorship
• Censored information is not only desired
more, but also believed more (Ashmore,
Ramchandra, & Jones, 1971).
• Instructions to disregard evidence
(Broeder, 1959)
– Driver had no liability insurance:
– Driver had liability insurance:
– Driver had insurance but judge told
jury to disregard the information as
inadmissible:
Censored information is not only desired more, but also believed more. University of North Carolina students
learned that a speech opposing coed dorms on campus was being banned. They then became more opposed to the
idea of coed dorms, despite never even hearing the speech (Ashmore, Ramchandra, & Jones, 1971)
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Broeder (1959) study on the effects of instructions to disregard evidence. Participants listened to a case in which a
woman was injured by a car driven by a careless male defendant. If the driver had no liability insurance the award
was $33,000 (I write in the awards). If the driver had liability insurance the award was $37,000. If the driver had
insurance and judge told the jury to disregard the information about the driver’s insurance as inadmissible, the
award was $46,000.
Numerous other alarming studies demonstrate that inadmissible evidence is, if anything, even more persuasive
than if it had just been left to stand. This may be why lawyers present evidence that they know will be ruled
inadmissible.
A taxonomy of scarcity
• Scarce items are seen as desirable
– Cookie studies (Worchel, Lee, &
Adewole, 1975)
– Jar with 10 cookies vs. jar with 2
cookies
• Recently scarce items are seen as more
desirable
– Jar with 2 cookies vs. jar with 10
cookies taken away and replaced with a
jar with 2 cookies
– Davies (1962): we are most likely to
find revolutions at a time when a period
of improving economic and social
conditions is followed by a short, sharp
reversal in those conditions
Scarce items are seen as desirable.
Cookie studies (Worchel, Lee, and Adewole, 1975): In a consumer preference study, participants were given a
chocolate chip cookie and asked to taste and rate its quality. For half the participants the jar contained 10 cookies.
For the other half, the jar contained two cookies. Participants receiving a jar with 2 cookies rated the cookies as
more desirable to eat in the future, more attractive as a consumer item, and more costly than the identical cookie
with 9 siblings. Interestingly, the scarce cookies were not rated as better tasting!
What about things that have just become scarce? In a follow-up study, some participants got a jar with 2 cookies,
while some started with a 10-cookie jar and had it replaced with a 2-cookie jar. Those whose jars had been
replaced gave the cookies more positive evaluations. Recently scarce items are seen as more desirable.
Davies (1962): we are most likely to find revolutions at a time when a period of improving economic and social
conditions is followed by a short, sharp reversal in those conditions. Revolutionaries are not those who have been
traditionally downtrodden. Instead, it is those who have been given a taste of a better life. Numerous historical
revolutions follow this pattern (French, Russian, American Civil Wars, urban black riots in the 60s).
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A taxonomy of scarcity
• Recently scarce items that became scarce
due to demand are the most desirable
– Jar with 10 cookies removed because
(a) experimenter had made a mistake, or
(b) cookies were needed for other
participants
• Scarcity is greatest when there is visible
competition for items
In the next study, a 10-cookie jar removed for two reasons: (a) the experimenter had made a mistake and given the
participant the wrong jar, or (b) the cookies were needed for other participants in the study. Those taken away to
be given to other participants were the most desirable of all.
Therefore: (a) scarce items are seen as desirable, (b) recently scarce items are seen as more desirable, (c) recently
scarce items that became scarce due to demand are the most desirable of all.
Scarcity is greatest when there is visible competition for items (for example, ads with “Last chance”). How does
this apply to dating? When is someone at his or her most attractive? When they’re unavailable.
Defense
• Arousal
– When feel the arousal of a scarcity
situation, calm down
– Think about how much you want the
object itself
Defense against the scarcity tactic lies in separating your desires to obtain something scarce vs. your desires to
actually use it. So, when you feel aroused and strongly desiring a scarce item, take time to calm down and decide
how much of your desire comes from desire to use the product itself vs. how much comes from the desire to
obtain it. You desire to make use of the object should be what guides you.
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Testing Scarcity:
7.1 According to Influence, why is it that as things become less available they seem more
attractive?
(a) Because most of the time, the things that are less available are more attractive.
(b) Because when something becomes less available our freedom to have it is restricted,
causing us to want it more by virtue of psychological reactance.
(c) Both a and b.
(d) Neither a nor b.
ANSWER: C
7.2 In a study by Brehm and Weintraub on the reactions of 2-year-old boys to an obstructed
toy, what happened?
(a) The boys went to the obstructed toy faster whether or not the obstruction was large
enough to hinder their access to the toy.
(b) The boys went to the obstructed toy faster only when the obstruction was large enough
to hinder their access to the toy.
(c) The boys went to the unobstructed toy faster.
(d) The boys went to the obstructed and the unobstructed toy with equal speed in all
conditions.
ANSWER: B
7.3 What is the typical effect on an audience of banning information? The audience:
(a) wants to have the information more but is not any more convinced of its validity.
(b) wants to have the information more and becomes more convinced of its validity
(c) doesn’t want to have the information any more and does not become more convinced of
its validity.
(d) none of the above.
ANSWER: B
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7.4 Which of the following results was not obtained in the Worchel et al. chocolate cookie
study?
(a) Scarce cookies were rated as more desirable and costly than abundant cookies.
(b) Scarce cookies were rated as better tasting than abundant cookies.
(c) New scarcity produced more desire for the cookies than did long-standing scarcity.
(d) Competition for a newly scare resource produced the most desire for it.
(e) None of the above; they were all obtained.
ANSWER: B
7.5 According to Influence, why is it so easy to be “conned” into compliance by a requester
who uses scarcity pressures?
(a) Because these pressures produce a state of calm that makes considered thinking easy.
(b) Because scarcity pressures are so subtle, we hardly know they are there.
(c) Because we are naturally inclined to try to achieve gains more than avoid losses.
(d) None of the above.
ANSWER: D
7.6 People tend to be most likely to engage in behaviors
(a) to achieve gains.
(b) to prevent losses.
(c) that are risky
(d) Both A and B are equally pursued.
ANSWER: B
7.7 Resources are most desired when
(a) they become more limited in quantity because others obtained them.
(b) they become more limited in quantity because of a counting error.
(c) they have always been limited in quantity.
(d) All of the above are equally desirable.
ANSWER: A
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7.8 A salesperson notices that a customer is closely examining a particular television set. She
approaches the customer and explains that it’s a great TV, but, unfortunately, the last one
was sold 20 minutes ago. The disappointed customer asks if there are any more available.
The salesperson agrees to check, but first asks the customer if he will purchase the TV if
one is found. The customer agrees quickly. Lo and behold, the salesperson finds an
additional supply of televisions. Though the TV is not quite as attractive as it was a
moment ago, the customer buys it anyway. Which weapon of influence led to the sale?
(a) Scarcity
(b) Authority
(c) Commitment and Consistency
(d) Both a and b
(e) Both a and c
ANSWER: E
7.9 Which of the following does NOT invoke scarcity?
(a) Mimicry
(b) Censorship
(c) Exclusive information
(d) Competition
ANSWER: A
7.10 Psychological reactance fuels which weapon of influence?
(a) Reciprocity
(b) Commitment and Consistency
(c) Social Proof
(d) Authority
(e) Scarcity
ANSWER: E
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INSTRUCTOR’S MANUAL AND TEST BANK
7.11 In a study of 140 Colorado teenage couples, parental interference led to which of the
following?
(a) The partners viewed one another more critically and reported a greater number of
negative behaviors in the other.
(b) The pair felt greater love for each other and a greater desire for marriage.
(c) When parental interference increased, so did the love the couple felt for each other.
(d) All of the above
(e) Both b and c
ANSWER: D
7.12 A store repeatedly advertises that it is having a “going out of business sale.” The owners of
the store are taking advantage of the principle of:
(a) Social Proof
(b) Reciprocity
(c) Liking
(d) Scarcity
(e) Commitment/Consistency
ANSWER: D
7.13 In a trial, the judge will sometimes instruct a jury to disregard evidence. According to the
research cited in Influence, what is a common result of the judge’s instructions?
(a) The jury successfully disregards the evidence and renders a decision similar to the one
they would have arrived at had they never heard the disregarded evidence.
(b) The jury overreacts to the judge’s instructions and renders a decision in the opposite
direction of the evidence.
(c) The jury ignores the judge’s instructions and renders a decision as if the judge had
never instructed the jury to disregard the evidence.
(d) The jury focuses on the disregarded evidence and renders a decision that incorporates it
even more strongly than had the judge never instructed them to disregard it.
ANSWER: D
Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Allyn & Bacon.
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INFLUENCE: SCIENCE AND PRACTICE, 5E
7.14 In the “imported beef” study by Knishinsky (1982), which of the following added pieces of
information did NOT result in increased beef orders?
(a) Imported beef was likely to be scarce
(b) The information regarding the beef shortage was exclusive
(c) The information regarding the beef shortage had been known for quite some time.
(d) None of the above (all resulted in increased orders)
ANSWER: C
7.15 According to Influence, to defend ourselves against scarcity, we should do all of the
following except
(a) notice the rising tide of arousal and use it as a signal to calm ourselves and proceed with
care.
(b) use our emotions as a guide to see whether we truly wish to obtain the item.
(c) when we feel scarcity pressure, consider whether we want the item under consideration
because it is rare or because we actually want to eat it, drink it, drive it, or otherwise use it.
(d) None of the above; all of the above help us defend ourselves against scarcity.
ANSWER: B
