1. The word “behavior” refers to any activity of an organism that can be _____.
a.
observed
b.
visualized
c.
precisely measured
d.
Both a and b are correct.
ANSWER:
a
2. According to the text, learning is a(n) _____ in behavior that results from some type of experience.
temporary change
permanent change
relatively permanent change
irreversible change
c
3. Classical conditioning is to _____ behavior as operant conditioning is to ______ behavior.
novel; involuntary
reflexive; voluntary
reflexive; novel
voluntary; reflexive
b
4. If your friend smiles afteryou give her a compliment, you are more likely to compliment her in the future. Which of the following types of conditioning does this example illustrate?
Classical conditioning
Cognitive learning
Observational learning
Operant conditioning
d
5. A student studying hard to win a medal is to _____ conditioning as salivating in response to food is to _____ conditioning.
operant; classical
classical; operant
cognitive; classical
cognitive; operant
6. Which of the following is an example of classical conditioning?
A student being punctual because he has been praised before for his punctuality
An infant throwing tantrums as this helps her get her parents’ attention
A dog learning to perform some tricks in order to get food from its master
rat learning to jump in response to a clap that was previously accompanied by a shock
7. In operant conditioning, behaviors are:
reflexive or involuntary.
elicited by external stimulations.
controlled by their consequences.
largely innate.
8. Aristotle was a(n) _____, while Plato was a(n) _____.
empiricist; nativist
structuralist; functionalist
functionalist; structuralist
nativist; empiricist
9. Jason believes that great scientists are born and not made, while Allison believes that great scientists have simply been given superior training. Jason is best described as a(n) _____, while Allison is best described as a(n) _____.
10. Joseph once witnessed an accident in which a car had plowed into a big oak tree. Now, each time he drives by that tree, he is reminded of the accident. Joseph’s behavior illustrates Aristotle’s law of _____.
frequency
contrast
contiguity
similarity
11. As I look at the spotlight, I am reminded of the sun. This example illustrates Aristotle’s law of _____.
proximity
12. Seeing someone who is very old makes me wonder what he or she looked like as a young person. This example illustrates Aristotle’s law of _____.
13. As I look at my messy apartment, I am reminded of my friend’s neat and organized apartment. This is best described as an example of Aristotle’s law of _____.
14. When Trish saw a lush green forest, it reminded her of the desert that she had visited last year. This example illustrates Aristotle’s law of _____.
15. Samantha’s neighbor Amir mows his lawn every Sunday. Samantha is so used to the sound of his lawn mower that she imagines the sound even on those Sundays when Amir does not mow his lawn. In this scenario, Samantha’s behavior illustrates Aristotle’s law of _____.
contingency
16. We easily associate birds with trees and tires with cars. This example illustrates Aristotle’s law of _____.
17. Aristotle’s laws of_____ and _____ are still considered important aspects of learning.
contiguity; proximity
frequency; similarity
contrast; contingency
frequency; contiguity
18. Who among the following philosophers suggested that at least some types of behaviors are mechanistic and can therefore be scientifically investigated?
Aristotle
Descartes
John Locke
William James
19. Descartes believed that the behavior of nonhuman animals is:
entirely operant
entirely reflexive.
freely chosen.
partially reflexive.
20. “I am able to control only some of my behaviors.” This statement best exemplifies_____ theory of human behavior.
Descartes’
Plato’s
John Locke’s
Edward B. Titchener’s
21. The statement “A person is both a physical being and a spiritual being” agrees with the approach to psychology proposed by _____.
John Locke
B.F. Skinner
22. Who among the following philosophers strongly believed that there is a fundamental difference between humans and animals?
B. F. Skinner
René Descartes
William James
Clark Hull
23. An individual who believes that humans and animals are fundamentally different would most likely agree with the views of _____.
Ivan Pavlov
24. Who among the following strongly promoted the notion that almost all knowledge is a function of experience?
The British empiricists
Plato
All of these are correct.
25. The British empiricists promoted the notion that almost all knowledge is a function of _____.
heredity
reflection
experience
divine intervention
26. The notion of “tabula rasa” was proposed by _____.
Edward Titchener
John Lock
27. Who among the following philosophers put forward the notion that a newborn’s mind is a blank slate?
28. The statement “All that we are is a function of what we have experienced” illustrates the approach to psychology advocated by _____.
British empiricists
structuralists
cognitive behaviorists
neobehaviorists
29. Although _____ believed that the conscious mind consists of various combinations of basic elements, it was researchers associated with the approach known as _____ who actually began to test that idea.
the British empiricists; Platonism
Plato; British empiricism
the British empiricists; structuralism
structuralists; functionalism
30. Which of the following perspectives holds that it is possible to understand the structure of the mind by identifying the basic elements that compose it?
Structuralism
Behaviorism
Nativism
Empiricism
31. In the method of _____, the subjects in an experiment try to accurately describe their inner thoughts and emotions.
attentive vigilance
cognitive mapping
introspection
introversion
32. Judith, a chess player, is asked to report her precise thought patterns as she plans each move in the game. This scenario illustrates the method of _____.
cognitiveperception
attentive perception
cognitive elucidation
33. The structuralist emphasis on _____ helped establish psychology as a scientific discipline.
inferences
systematic observation
observable behavior
unconscious processes
34. Functionalists believed that psychology should be the study of:
the elements of conscious experience.
mind–body dualism.
observable behavior.
adaptive processes.
35. “What purpose is served by our ability to dream?” This question would most likely be asked by a psychologist who follows the approach of _____.
associationism
structuralism
mind–body dualism
functionalism
36. Which of the following approaches to psychology was partially derived from Darwin’s theory of evolution?
British empiricism
Functionalism
Mind–body dualism
37. William James was a_____, while Titchener was a _____.
behaviorist; functionalist
functionalist; behaviorist
38. Structuralism is to functionalism as_____ is to _____.
William James; Edward Titchener
Edward Titchener; William James
John Watson; John Locke
John Locke; John Watson
39. One similarity between structuralism and functionalism is that both approaches:
used animals for experiments.
focused on overt behavior.
emphasized the study of adaptive processes.
utilized the method of introspection.
40. Which of the following schools of psychology was the immediate predecessor to behaviorism?
Gestalt psychology
41. The concept that individuals or species that are capable of adapting to environmental pressures are more likely to reproduce and pass along their adaptive characteristics than those that cannot adapt is called _____.
inheritanc
natural selection
Darwinism
42. Natural selection leads to:
homogenization of traits within a species.
changes in species across generations.
changes in species within a generation.
reduced competition among the members of a species.
43. Which of the following is not considered an aspect of evolution?
Some individuals acquire more resources than others based on some inherited traits that give them an advantage.
Successful individuals hold reproductive advantage over unsuccessful individuals.
Traits vary, both within a species and between species.
44. Which of the following are the three components to the principle of natural selection?
Traits vary within a population; Organisms must compete for limited resources; Individuals learn to adapt to their environment.
Organisms must compete for limited resources; Traits are heritable; Successful individuals are better able to survive.
Traits vary within a species; Traits are heritable; Some species live longer than others.
Traits vary within a species and between species; Traits are heritable; Organisms must compete for limited resources.
45. From an evolutionary perspective, the ability to learn is considered to be:
a non-genetic trait.
an invariant trait.
an adaptation.
46. Who among the following strongly criticized psychologists for emphasizing the study of conscious experience?
John Watson
47. According to John Watson, a major problem with the study of internal events is that:
one has to make inferences that are often unreliable.
it requires a large number of subjects.
the role of genetic factors is often ignored.
it is too simplistic to produce anything of value.
48. One of the major difficulties with the structuralist approach to psychology was that the method of _____ was unreliable.
deduction
induction
contemplation
49. According to _____, a major problem with the study of internal events is thatone has to make inferences that are often _____.
Albert Bandura; too simplistic
John Watson; unreliable
John Watson; too simplistic
Albert Bandura; unreliable
50. Which of the following statements is true of behaviorism?
It encourages the use of introspection in studying conscious experiences.
It recommends an objective, natural science approach to psychology.
It strongly rejects the value of animal research in psychology.
It considers internal events as an important determinant of behavior.
51. Behaviorism, as originally defined by James Watson, is a _____ approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of _____ on observable behavior.
natural science; internal events
cognitive; environment influence
natural science; environmental influences
cognitive; internal events
52. Who among the following individuals is most likely a behaviorist?
Amir believes that the existence of internal events can be inferred using intervening variables.
Herman believes that psychological processes should be approached from a molar, holistic perspective.
Abigail believes that the method of introspection is highly unreliable to study human psychology.
Angelina believes that internal events, observable behavior, and environmental factors interact with each other.
53. Which of the following statements is true of behaviorism?
It proposed that thoughts and behavior influence each other.
It suggested that learning takes place when a particular kind of behavior is rewarded or punished.
It used mediating events to infer the existence of internal events.
It approached psychology as an objective science based solely on the study of directly observable behavior.
54. While participating in a debate on psychology, Julia argues that the study of internal events should be strictly avoided as they are too subjective. In this scenario, Julia most likely adheres to the approach to psychology known as _____.
behaviorism
neobehaviorism
cognitive behaviorism
purposive behaviorism
55. Following his banishment from a university position, James Watson:
retired from psychology.
became the pop psychologist of his era.
attempted to promote a more scientific study of advertising.
Both b and c are correct.
56. Which of the following statements is true of James Watson?
He was quite uncomfortable with the discussion of feelings.
He was extremely interested in the meaning of dreams.
He hated animals.
57. James Watson’s methodological behaviorism played a valuable role in enabling psychology to:
focus more strongly upon human, as opposed to animal, behavior.
become more experimental in nature.
break free from the extreme mentalism of the time.
emphasize the role of biological factors.
58. Methodological behaviorism asserts that psychologists should study those behaviors that can be:
investigated in animal experiments.
directly observed.
indirectly observed.
59. Which school of behaviorism is most likely to consider reports about thoughts and feelings to be unscientific?
Radical behaviorism
Methodological behaviorism
Neobehaviorism
Social learning theory
60. Which of the following theorists would have been most likely to refute the psychological importance of daydreaming?
Albert Bandura
61. Who among the following is most likely a methodological behaviorist?
Neil, who believes that all learning involves a stimulus-response reaction
Meera, who believes that internal events can be studied by operationalizing them
Karen, who believes that behavior should be studied at a molar, holistic level
Judith, who believes that learning occurs even when there are no visible signs of it
62. Who among the following behaviorists would be the least interested in your inner thought processes while solving a math problem?
Edward Tolman
63. Which of the following behaviorists would be least interested in conducting an experiment on a person’s ability to form mental images?
64. The statement “Daydreams cannot be scientifically investigated” would most likely come from a _____.
methodological behaviorist
neobehaviorist
cognitive behaviorist
radical behaviorist
65. John Watson’s specific theory of learning was:
based largelyon operant conditioning.
a type ofstimulus-response theory.
a cognitive-reflex theory.
based largely on the study of innate patterns of behavior.
66. Which of the following statements is true of John Watson’s specific theory of learning?
It was a type of stimulus-response theory.
It derived from Pavlov’s work on classical conditioning.
Both a and b are correct.
Neither a nor b is correct.
67. According to the stimulus-response theory, learning involves the formation of connections between _____ stimuli and _____ responses.
general; general
specific; specific
observable; covert
covert; covert
68. With respect to the nature-nurture debate, _____ shifted over time toward becoming an extreme proponent of the _____ perspective with respect to human behavior.
B. F. Skinner; nurture
John Watson; nurture
B. F. Skinner; nature
John Watson; nature
69. Who among the following behaviorists would most likely to reject the assumption that genes play a strong role in determining differences in math ability?
70. Researchers have discovered that expert performers:
are not born with talent.
show superlative skills in many different fields of endeavor.
usually require at least 10 years of practice to achieve a high level of performance.
71. Karen is an excellent tennis player. According to Ericsson, Krampe, and Tesch-Römer, Karen’s ability is most likely the result of:
excellent motor skills that were inherited from her parents.
high self-efficacy.
high self-esteem.
an extensive amount of deliberate practice.
72. Based on research findings, Ericsson et al. (1993) argued that the most critical factor in determining expert performance is _____.
unstructured play
deliberate practice
innate ability
Both a and c are correct.
73. In a study on expert performance, Ericsson et al. (1993) reported that top-level performers practice their craft:
for only one or two hours per day.
for eight or more hours per day.
only when they feel like practicing.
for about four hours per day.
74. According to the study on expert performance conducted by Ericsson et al. (1993), heredity may influence expert performance in determining:
innate ability.
the extent to which one becomes interested in an endeavor.
one’s ability to endure the hard work needed to become a top performer.
75. A major challenge to methodological behaviorism came from_____, who used intervening variables, usually in the form of hypothesized physiological processes, to help explain behavior.
76. The mediating events that Hull incorporated into his theory consisted largely of physiological-type reactions, for example, a “hunger drive” that can be _____ as number of hours of food deprivation.
experienced
enhanced
operationalized
suppressed
77. The “middle man” or broker in a business transaction is analogous to what Hull referred to as a(n) _____.
extraneous variable
intervening variable
independent variable
confounding variable
78. Neobehaviorismutilizes intervening variables, usually in the form of hypothesized _____, to help explain behavior.
cognitive processes
fixed action patterns
physiological processes
unconscious conflicts
79. Which school of behaviorism would be most likely to study the effect of thirst on behavior?
Purposive behaviorism
80. “Sean walks quickly to the cafeteria as he is hungry due to food deprivation.” This statement illustrates _____ brand of behaviorism.
Tolman’s
Skinner’s
Hull’s
Bandura’s
81. Which of the following behaviorists would be most likely interested in manipulating the degree to which a rat has been food deprived?
82. Which of the following approaches to behaviorism views behavior as very machine-like, with specific responses becoming attached to specific stimuli?
Adaptive behaviorism
83. Hull’s model of behavior is quite similar to modern cognitive approaches that view humans as:
self-motivating.
animals that respond with fixed action patterns that are not modifiable.
analogous to computers that process bits of information from the environment to produce responses.
more susceptible to social cues than to biological cues.
84. Which of the following behaviorists would most likely be interested in robotics, because of its focus on mechanistic aspects of behavior?
85. Edward Tolman’s approach to behaviorismutilizes intervening variables, usually in the form of hypothesized _____, to help explain behavior.
86. Edward Tolman’s “molar” approach to behaviorism was inspired by the _____ approach of _____.
holistic; Gestalt theorists
molecular; Hull
introspective; Titchener
methodological; Watson
87. A mental representation of one’s spatial surroundings is a _____.
spatial mentation
spatial cognition
cognitive map
spatial heuristic
88. Janice loses her way whenever she deviates from the usual route she takes to go home. Tolman would most likely say that Janice has a defective _____.
schema
schemata
vestibular system
89. When I visited Paris for a conference, I spent the first few days just wandering the streets. On the third day, when I had to meet a friend at the Louvre museum, I knew exactly how to get there. This is best described as an example of_____ learning.
delayed
S-R
latent
observational
90. Tolman and Honzik’s (1930) maze study suggested that:
there is no distinction between learning and performance.
there is a distinction between learning and performance.
maze running in rats is a largely reflexive action.
Both a and c are correct
91. The statement “Learning can take place in the absence of reward” would most likely come from a _____.
neobehavioristc
classical behaviorist
92. In _____, learning occurs even though there may not be any observable demonstration of that learning.
operant conditioning
latent learning
classical conditioning
adjunctive learning
93. Who among the following behaviorists emphasized the distinction between learning and performance?
94. The field of study known as _____ adopts concepts from Tolman’s approach to behaviorism.
teleologicalbehaviorism
animal cognition
humanistic psychology
evolutionary psychology
95. Who among the following theorists is most likely to explain behavior in terms of thoughts and feelings?
96. Observational learning is an important aspect of _____.
social learning theory
methodological behaviorism
97. Which of the following statements is true of social learning theory?
It recognizes the distinction between learning and performance.
Bandura’s interpretation of the theory is more closely aligned to Tolman’s approach than Hull’s approach to behaviorism.
It assigns an important role to self-referent thoughts.
98. Who among the following is most likely to say that you go to the supermarket because you expect that food is available at the supermarket?
A methodological behaviorist
A radical behaviorist
A social learning theorist
A neobehaviorist
99. Who among the following behaviorists proposed thatour behavior is often strongly influenced by the beliefs we have about our own abilities?
100. Who among the following behaviorists proposed the notion of reciprocal determinism?
101. According to the notion of _____, behavior, environment and internal events (person variables) influence each other.
reciprocal determinism
interactive determinism
reciprocal inference
interactive inference
102. Tara complains that she is doing poorly in her classes only because she is not being taught well. Who among the following theorists is most likely to consider Tara’s explanation over-simplistic?
103. Bob believes that he has trouble studying because his parents neglected him as a child. Who among the following theorists is most likely to consider Bob’s explanation over-simplistic?
104. According to B. F. Skinner, thoughts and feelings are
impossible to be studied.
the ultimate causes of behavior.
private behaviors that themselves require explanations.
reflexes more than operants.
105. What is the position of radical behaviorism with respect to internal events like thoughts and feelings?
Internal events have no place in the science of behavior.
Internal events should be studied, but they should not be used as explanations for behavior.
Internal events are the basic concepts that explain any behavior.
Internal events are caused by behavior, but they do not cause behavior.
106. The statement “Thoughts are just another form of behavior and should be studied as such” closely aligns with the views of _____.
107. Who among the following behaviorists would most likely say that thoughts and feelings are a function of the environment and should be studied as such?
Rene Descartes
108. John Watson was a _____, while B. F. Skinner was a _____.
radical behaviorist; methodological behaviorist
methodological behaviorist; radical behaviorist
neobehaviorist; radical behaviorist
radical behaviorist; neobehaviorist
109. B. F. Skinner believed that:
people are often quiteinaccurate at describing their feelings.
people are often quiteaccurate at describing their feelings.
males are generally inaccurate whereas females are generally accurate at describing their feelings.
adults are generally accurate whereas children are generally inaccurate at describing their feelings.
110. Skinner observed that when parentsteach children to label internal events, they:
can only make inferences about what the children are actually feeling.
pay too little attention to this type of training.
often punish children for inaccurately describing their feelings.
111. .Dr. Franzoi notices that one of her patients has great difficulty describing her emotions, possibly because she was severely neglected as a young child. Who among the following behaviorists would most likely have been interested in this case?
112. When we look for causal relationships between thoughts and behaviors, we need to recognize that thoughts and feelings sometimes:
follow abehavior.
precede a behavior.
occur parallel to the behavior.
113. Removing the magazines from your room so that you will not be distracted by them while studying is an example of what Skinner called _____.
countercontrol
counterdeterminism
reciprocal control
114. Skinner’s notion of _____ is similar in some aspects to Bandura’s concept of reciprocal determinism.
indeterminism
counterconditioning
115. Which of the following notions proposed by B. F. Skinner refutes the principle of free will?
Reciprocal determinism
Reciprocal control
Countercontrol
Counter determinism
116. .B. F. Skinner’s approach to behaviorism is similar to Tolman’s in that they both emphasized a _____ view of behavior.
molecular
free will
cognitive
molar
117. I head to the cafeteria to get food. With respect to behaviorists, this is a relatively _____ explanation for behavior.
molar
nondeterministic
existential
118. _____ studied the effect of experience on behavior, whereas _____ studied the effect of expectation on behavior.
B. F. Skinner; Edward Tolman
B. F. Skinner; Clark Hull
Clark Hull; John Watson
Edward Tolman; John Watson
119. B. F. Skinner _____ the role of genetic influences on behavior.
basically ignored
adamantly rejected
clearly recognized
overemphasized
120. According to Skinner, behavior is ultimately the result of _____ influences.
genetic
environmental
cognitive
121. According to Skinner, the principle of operant conditioning is quite similar to the principle of _____.
homeostasis
gravity
relativity
122. Operant conditioning is a sort of mini-evolution of an organism’s behaviors in the sense that _____ responses become more frequent while _____ responses become less frequent
nonadaptive; adaptive
adaptive; nonadaptive
reflexive; operant
operant; reflexive
123. The statement “That which works remains; that which doesn’t work is eliminated” reflects the principle of _____.
124. Changes in a species is to _____ as changes in an individual is to _____.
classical conditioning; operant conditioning
operant conditioning; classical conditioning
natural selection; operant conditioning
operant conditioning; natural selection
125. John experiences difficulty learning a new swim stroke. His coach further discourages him by saying that one needs innate talents to learn swimming. John’s coach is most likely a _____.
nativist
humanist
empiricist
structuralist
126. The statement “Great athletes are made, not born” reflects the _____ approach to behavior.
existentialist
127. Behaviorists _____ the role of genetic factors in learning.
have a growing appreciation for
reject
ignore
focus solely upon
128. The science of physiology is to the practice of medicine as_____ is to _____.
behavioranalysis; applied behavior analysis
radical behaviorism; behavior analysis
behavior analysis; radical behaviorism
radical behaviorism; applied behavior analysis
129. Aircraft engineering is to physics as:
radical behaviorism is to applied behavior analysis.
applied behavior analysis is to behavior analysis.
behavior analysis is to applied behavior analysis.
behavior analysis is to radical behaviorism.
130. Philosophy is to science as_____ is to _____.
behavior analysis;radical behaviorism
cognitive behaviorism; applied behavior analysis
radical behaviorism; behavior analysis.
behavior analysis; applied behavior analysis
131. What is the relationship between "radical behaviorism" and "behavior analysis"?
Radical behaviorism is the philosophical basis for behavior analysis.
Behavior analysis is the philosophical basis for radical behaviorism.
Radical behaviorists conduct scientific research, and behavior analysts are practicing clinicians.
Behavior analysis is a science, while radical behaviorism is the application of that science.
132. All of the following are major schools of behaviorism EXCEPT _____.
ontological behaviorism
133. .B. F. Skinner believed that punishment:
often creates more problems than it solves.
is an effective means of childhood management.
has a positive effect on children.
has a positive effect on adults.
134. A strong trait of B. F. Skinner’s character that later reflected in his brand of behaviorism was his _____.
objectivity
mysticism
mathematical ability
fear of emotions
135. Which of the following personal characteristics most directly influenced Skinner’s work as a psychologist?
Love for poetry
Extreme emotionality
Inventiveness
Athleticism
136. Skinner’sbook, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, proposed that:
freedom and dignity are necessary for human existence.
society must be engineered to control human behavior for the better.
people must be taught to be free.
society has been over-engineered to the point where people have lost their dignity.
137. After writing the bookBeyond Freedom and Dignity, Skinner was severely criticized for:
proposing that governments should be abolished.
rejecting the concept of free will.
rejecting the concept of an engineered society.
138. Which of the following statements is true of Skinner’s daughter?
She grew up in an experimental chamber.
She became mentally ill.
139. Which of the following inventions made by B. F. Skinner is likely to benefit greatly from the modern day availability of personal computers?
Programmed instruction
Whole language learning
Peer-based instruction
Distance education
140. Steven once became terribly ill while visiting Chicago. After that incident, whenever he visits Chicago, Steven thinks of the illness he suffered at that time. In the context of the four laws of association, Steven’s behavior illustrates the law of _________.
contiguity
141. While studying the process of fantasizing, a psychologist who adheres to the approach of _________ would try to understand the adaptive value of fantasizing.
142. When Tara saw the lush green lawn, she remembered how dry the lawn had been the previous year. In the context of the four laws of association, Tara’s behavior illustrates the law of _________.
contrast
143. The law of _________ states that events that occur in close proximity to each other are readily associated
144. After struggling unsuccessfully to eliminate his anxiety, Andres finally accepts that there are some aspects of his behavior that he can control and some that he cannot control. This conclusion is similar to that of the French philosopher _________ and his theory of _________ dualism.
Descartes; mind–body
145. To understand her feelings for Juan, Pamela pays close attention to the sensations she feels each time she sees him. This is an example of the method of _________. This was a favorite method of research by psychologists who adhered to the approach known as _________.
introspection; structuralism
146. Jason once found $20 while cleaning his apartment. As a result, he feels motivated to clean his apartment more often. Jason’s behavior illustrates _________ conditioning.
operant
147. “My cat never gets lost. It’s like she has a blueprint of the entire town in her mind.” This statement fits best with the approach to psychology known as _________.
cognitive (or purposive) behaviorism
148. Descartes believed that the behavior of _________ is entirely reflexive.
nonhuman animals
149. The assumption that environmental events, observable behavior, and internal events all influence each other is called _________.
reciprocal determinism
150. Diane often gets lost when she drives around the city in which she lives. Tolman would most probably say that she has a faulty _________.
151. Roberta, a graduate student, is a passive listener during lectures. However, she can later repeat everything that was mentioned in the lectures. This is an example of _________ learning and illustrates the distinction between learning and _________.
observational (or latent); performance
152. B. F. Skinner’s approach to the study of behavior is a(n) _________ approach. In this sense, Skinner’s approach is quite similar to that of _________.
molar; Edward Tolman
153. The basic science that grew out of the philosophy of radical behaviorism is called _________.
behavior analysis (or the experimental analysis of behavior)
154. The mental representation of one’s spatial surroundings is called a(n) _________.
155. The results of Tolman and Honzik’s (1930) experiment demonstrated _________ learning (or the distinction between performance and behavior).
156. Neal is a golden retriever who is taught to salivate in response to a click. His behavior illustrates _________ conditioning.
classical
157. Name and briefly describe the two fundamental forms of learning emphasized in the textbook.
Answers will vary
Feedback:Two fundamental forms of learning are classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning is the process by which certain inborn, involuntary behaviors come to be elicited in new situations. Operant conditioning involves the strengthening or weakening of a behavior as a result of its consequences.
158. Describe the nativist versus empiricist approaches to knowledge. How would a nativist and an empiricist explain how Picasso became such a great artist?
Feedback:The nativist (nature) perspective assumes that a person’s abilities and tendencies are largely inborn, while the empiricist (nurture) perspective assumes that a person’s abilities and tendencies are mostly learned. A nativist would assume that Picasso’s artistic talent is largely innate, while an empiricist would assume that Picasso’s artistic talent is largely the result of learning.
159. Name and briefly describe the four laws of association.
Feedback:The following are Aristotle’s four laws of association:
TheLaw of Similarity: Events that are similar to each other are readily associated.
The Law of Contrast: Events that are opposite from each other are readily associated.
The Law of Contiguity: Events that occur in close proximity to each other in time or space are readily associated.
The Law of Frequency: The more frequently two items occur together, the more strongly they are associated.
160. Outline Descartes’ dualistic model of human behavior. According to Descartes, what is the basic distinction between the behavior of humans and the behavior of animals?
Feedback:
Descartes’ notion of mind-body dualism holds that some human behaviors are reflexes that are automatically elicited by external stimulation, while other behaviors are freely chosen and controlled by the mind. He believed that nonhuman animal behavior is entirely reflexive, while human behavior is a combination of reflexes and freely chosen behaviors.
161. How did the British empiricists view the acquisition of knowledge and the composition of the conscious mind?
Feedback:The British empiricists maintained that almost all knowledge is a function of experience. They also believed that the conscious mind is composed of a finite set of basic elements (specific colors, sounds, smells, etc.) that are combined through the principles of association into complex sensations and thought patterns.
162. Describe the structuralist approach to psychology. Name and define the basic method by which structuralists gathered data.
Feedback:Structuralism assumes thatit is possible to determine the structure of the mind by identifying the basic elements of which it is composed. Structuralists used the method of introspection, in which the subject in an experiment attempts to accurately describe his or her conscious thoughts, emotions, and sensory experiences.
163. Describe the functionalist approach to psychology. What was functionalists’ view on animal experimentation and what was their reasoning behind this?
Feedback:Functionalists assumed that themind evolved to help us adapt to the world around us and that the focus of psychology should be the study of those adaptive processes. They believed, like Darwin, that humans evolved in the same manner as other animals and that much of what we learn from studying animals may be of direct relevance to humans.
164. Describe Darwin’s principle of natural selection. What are the three main components of the principle of natural selection?
Feedback:The principle of natural selection states that individuals that are capable of adapting to environmental pressures are more likely to survive and reproduce than those that cannot adapt. The following are the three components of natural selection:
1) Traits vary, both within a species and between species (e.g., some individuals are larger than others).
2) Traits are heritable and have a genetic basis.
3) Organisms must compete for limited resources.
165. Describe Watson’s methodological behaviorism. How did Watson’s position on the nature–nurture debate change over time?
Feedback: Methodological behaviorism asserts that, for methodologicalreasons, psychologists should study only those behaviors that can be directly observed. Over time, Watson also became something of an extremist regarding the nature–nurture issue. In his original 1913 article, he emphasized the influence of both heredity and environment on behavior. Later, following extensive observations of human infants, he came to the conclusion that humans inherit only a few fundamental reflexes along with three basic emotions (love, rage, and fear). Everything else, he believed, is learned.
166. Describe Hull’s neobehaviorism. How does Tolman’s cognitive behaviorism differ from it?
Feedback: Hull’s neobehaviorism is a brand of behaviorism that utilizes intervening variables, in the form of hypothesized physiological processes, to help explain behavior. Tolman’s cognitive behaviorism is similar except that the intervening variables are usually in the form of hypothesized cognitive processes.
167. Define a cognitive map. Which school of behaviorism used a cognitive map as an intervening variable?
Feedback: A cognitive map is a mental representation of one’s spatial surroundings. Evidence for this concept was provided by a study on “latent learning” by Tolman and Honzik (1930). Cognitive behaviorists use a cognitive map as an intervening variable.
168. Describe Bandura’s social learning theory. Outline or diagram his concept of reciprocal determinism.
Feedback: Social learning theory is a behavioral approach that strongly emphasizes the importance of observational learning and cognitive variables inexplaining human behavior. According to the concept of reciprocal determinism, environmental events, observable behavior, and “person variables” (which include thoughts and feelings) are seen as having a reciprocal influence on each other.
169. Describe Skinner’s radical behaviorism. How does his approach to determinism differ from that of Bandura’s?
Feedback: Radical behaviorism emphasizes the influence of the environment on overt behavior, rejects the use of internal events to explain behavior, and views thoughts and feelings as behaviors which themselves need to be explained. Although Skinner might be seen as agreeing with some aspects of Bandura’s notion of reciprocal determinism—in the sense that environmental events, internal events, and observable behavior can be seen as capable of interacting with each other—he differs from Bandura in assuming that it is the environment that ultimately determines both external behavior and internal (private) behavior.
170. How is operant conditioning similar to Darwin’s principle of natural selection? Why was Skinner cautious about placing too much emphasis on genetic factors in behavior?
Feedback: In the same way that the principle of natural selection specifies that adaptive characteristics are more likely to increase across generations within a species, operant conditioning specifies that adaptive behaviors (those behaviors that lead to reinforcers) are more likely to increase in frequency within an individual. Skinner believed that behavior was ultimately the result of the interaction of both genes and the environment. Nevertheless, he was cautious about emphasizing genetic factors insofar as assuming that a behavior pattern has been genetically determined as it often leads to a pessimistic attitude about the possibility of changing the behavior. Simply put, if one assumes that a maladaptive behavior pattern has been genetically determined, we tend to assume that it cannot be changed. By contrast, if one assumes that a maladaptive behavior pattern has been learned, we tend to assume that it can also be changed.
171. What is the distinction between radical behaviorism, behavior analysis, and applied behavior analysis?
Feedback: Radical behaviorism is the set of philosophical assumptions that underlie Skinner’s approach to the science of behavior. Behavior analysis (or the experimental analysis of behavior) is the basic science that grew out of radical behaviorism. Applied behavior analysis is a technology of behavior in which basic principles of behavior are applied to real-world issues.
172. Compare and contrast Watson’s version of behaviorism with Skinner’s.
Feedback: Watson’s methodological behaviorism completely rejects the inclusion of internal events in the science of behavior and proposes that we should focus exclusively on observable behavior and the environment that surrounds it. Skinner believed that internal events can be included in a science of behavior, but only as a type of behavior that itself needs to be explained and not as explanations for behavior. Like Watson, Skinner emphasized the importance of the environment in determining behavior; unlike Watson, he was not as extreme an advocate of the nurture perspective. Nevertheless, he was wary of placing too much emphasis on genetic determinants of behavior, since this tends to lead to pessimistic assumptions about the possibility of changing maladaptive behaviors. Finally, Skinner’s view of the learning process tends to be more molar and less machine-like than Watson’s, who believed that all behavior could be explained in terms of stimulus-response connections.
173. Compare and contrast Tolman’s cognitive behaviorism with Bandura’s social learning theory.
Feedback: Tolman and Bandura agree on the usefulness of including internal mental events in their theorizing. They differ in that these internal events are purely hypothetical from Tolman’s perspective, but quite real from Bandura’s perspective. For Tolman, these internal events are utilized as intervening variables that mediate between the environment and behavior; for Bandura, these internal events reciprocally interact with overt behavior and the environment to determine behavior. Tolman almost exclusively studied rats, while Bandura’s approach was much more focused on human behavior. Both Tolman and Bandura utilized a molar perspective in their study of behavior and emphasized the distinction between learning and performance
174. Compare and contrast functionalism with structuralism.
Feedback: Functionalism was concerned with investigating the adaptive significance of the mind, the assumption being that the mind evolved because it was in some way adaptive. Structuralism attempted to determine the structure of the mind by discovering the basic elements of which it is composed. Both structuralists and functionalists made use of the method of introspection, although functionalism was not averse to other methods of investigation, such as animal experimentation.
This product has run out of stock. You may send us an inquiry about it.
This product is currently unavailable. You may send us an inquiry about it.
