1. Define nature and nurture, and give an example of each. Also, describe the nature–nurture debate.
ANSWER:
Suggested Answer:
Nature refers to the influence of genes on a person, and nurture refers to environmental influences on a person. Environmental influences include the health and diet of the embryo's mother and continue for an individual's entire life, including experiences in the family, school, community, and society. An example of nature would be inheriting a gene that predisposes one to addiction. An example of nurture would be having a predisposition to addiction but being raised in a warm, stimulating environment in which parents do not abuse drugs or alcohol, reducing the individual's risk for addiction as a result of not being exposed to abuse or parental addictions. The debate concerns how many of any person's characteristics, behaviors, or emotions are the result of genes and how many are the result of the person's experiences.
Good (5 pts.)
Fair (3 pts.)
Weak (0-1 pts.)
Define nature and nurture
Accurately defines both terms and gives an example of both
Accurately defines one term and gives at least one accurate example
Does not accurately define both terms or supply accurate examples
Describe the debate
Accurately describes both sides of the debate
Accurately describes one side of the debate
Does not accurately describe the debate
2. Describe how modern researchers view the nature-nurture debate and explain epigenetics.
Modern researchers have learned that neither nature alone nor nurture alone can provide a complete way to understand development. Both nature and nurture matter, as both genes and environment affect nearly all of our characteristics. Epigenetics is the study of how environmental factors affect genes and genetic expression—enhancing, halting, shaping, or altering the expression of genes. This means that one's environment influences the expression of some genes.
Weak (0–1 pts.)
Researchers' viewpoint
States modern researchers' stance that both matter
Is vague about modern researchers' stance
Incorrectly states modern researchers' stance
Epigenetics
Defines the term and clearly explains what it means
Defines the term without explaining its meaning
Does not describe the term or give an explanation
3. Explain differential susceptibility, using the example of maternal depression and children's emotional maturity described in your textbook.
Differential susceptibility refers to the idea that people vary in how sensitive they are to particular experiences. These differences are often genetic. In one study, depression in pregnant women was assessed, and then the emotional maturity of their children was measured. Children who had a particular version of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) were likely to be emotionally immature if their mothers were depressed but more mature than average if their mothers were not depressed.
Define differential susceptibility
Accurately defines the term
Partially defines the term
Does not accurately define the term
Refer to the example of maternal depression and children's emotional maturity
Provides the example presented in the textbook
Partially explains the link between maternal depression and children's emotional maturity
Does not provide the example or incorrectly explains the link between maternal depression and children's emotional maturity
4. Define a critical period and a sensitive period. Explain the difference between the two periods and give an example of each.
A critical period is a time when something must occur to ensure normal development, and a sensitive period is a time when a specific developmental task occurs most easily. An example of a critical period would be the fetus growing arms and legs and hands and feet—this can occur only at a specific time in utero. Language development is an example of a sensitive period. It occurs most easily at a young age but can still develop at a later age as well.
Define and differentiate the two periods
Defines both periods and differentiates between them
Defines just one period or is vague about differentiation
Fails to define both periods or fails to differentiate
Give examples
Gives a correct example for both periods
Gives a correct example of either period
Does not give any examples
5. Explain Bronfenbrenner's ecological-systems theory and describe his five systems.
Bronfenbrenner's ecological-systems theory is a perspective on human development that considers all the influences from the various contexts of development. This approach recognizes three nested levels as well as two systems that affect these levels. He believed that each person is affected by his or her social context. Over the course of his career, he identified five systems. The first is the microsystem (e.g., one's family and peer group), the second is the exosystem (school, clubs, and church), and the third is the macrosystem (larger social setting, such as cultural values and economic policies). The fourth system, called the chronosystem, is the role of historical context, and the fifth system, called the mesosystem, is the interaction that occurs between all the other systems.
Explain ecological systems theory
Clearly states what the theory is
Gives a vague explanation of the theory
Is unable to describe the theory
Identify the systems
Identifies the five systems and gives an example of each
Identifies three of the systems or gives examples of three of the systems
Identifies fewer than three of the systems or gives fewer than three examples
6. Define cohort, explain its effects, and give an example of one.
A cohort is a group of people born within a few years of each other who move through time together. Cohorts travel through life affected by the interaction of their chronological age with the values, events, technologies, and culture of the historical period. Cohort examples will vary but should show an understanding of a cohort. Examples include the names that parents give their babies, views regarding the legalization of marijuana, and even the war on drugs. The baby-boom generation is an example of a cohort. Other common examples include the Greatest Generation (people who lived through the Depression and WWII) and the Millennials (Generation Y, born between the early 1980s and the early 2000s). Another example would be Generation X, born between the early 1960s and the early 1980s.
Explain cohort
Correctly defines cohort and explains its importance on members
Defines cohort without explaining its effect on members
Does not define cohort correctly
Give an example
Gives an example of a cohort
Gives a vague example of cohort
Gives an incorrect example or does not give an example
7. Explain the term SES, including four components of SES.
SES, or socioeconomic status, is a person's position in society and is determined by education, occupation, neighborhood, and income.
Explain the term
Correctly explains the term
Partially explains the term
Does not explain the term
Provide the four components
Includes the four components
Includes two components of SES
Does not include the four components or includes incorrect components
8. Describe culture and explain why researchers interested in human development study different cultures.
Culture is the system of shared beliefs, conventions, norms, behaviors, expectations, and symbolic representations that persist over time and prescribe social rules of conduct. Culture is a powerful social construction, or a concept created by a society. Such social constructions affect how people think and act—what they value, praise, ignore, and punish. Different cultures may view the same behaviors or phenomena as either assets or deficits. Therefore, by studying different cultures, researchers can identify which patterns are universal among humans and which occur only in certain cultures. This information provides insights into the effects of different environments.
Describe culture
Clearly describes culture
Gives a definition of culture without describing it
Does not define culture
Explain why researchers study different cultures
Clearly explains why researchers study different cultures
Is vague about why researchers study different cultures
Does not explain why researchers study different cultures
9. Brenda believes that the terms culture, ethnicity, and race mean the same thing and are interchangeable. Explain why Brenda is incorrect.
Plasticity is the molding of human traits while simultaneously maintaining some durability of identity. The concept of plasticity reminds us that human development is an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the body and mind and between the individual and every aspect of his or her environment. Influences that affect plasticity include culture, upbringing, and genes. Students' examples should relate to some aspect of growth in their individual lives, such as how they—or someone they know—have overcome adversity. For example, they could discuss how a high-functioning person on the autism spectrum can eventually earn a college degree. (The autism remains [durability], but with school and other societal interventions, the person can still achieve traditional milestones.)
Define and discuss plasticity
Defines the concept of plasticity and discusses it
Defines or discusses plasticity
Does not define or discuss plasticity
List factors that influence plasticity
Lists three factors that influence plasticity
Lists two factors that influence plasticity
Lists one or no factors that influence plasticity
Give a plasticity example
Gives an example of plasticity
Gives an example of plasticity but does not relate it to a personal experience
Does not give an example of plasticity
10. Describe similarities between Freud's theory of psychosexual development and Erikson's theory of psychosocial development. Next, describe ways in which these theories differ.
Both Freud and Erikson proposed stage theories based on the belief that adult problems echoed childhood conflicts. However, Erikson's psychosocial theory had eight stages, while Freud's psychosexual theory had five. Erikson named two polarities at each stage, and his stages encompassed the entire life span, while Freud's ended after adolescence. Erikson's theory also emphasized the influence of family and culture, while Freud's theory emphasized unconscious sexual urges.
Describe similarities
States that both men had stage theories based on the idea that adult problems echoed childhood conflicts
States that both theories had stages
Does not describe accurately how the theories were similar
Describe differences
States all four ways in which the theories differed
States three of the four ways in which the theories differed
States two or fewer ways in which the theories differed or does not accurately describe how the theories differed
11. Describe classical and operant conditioning. Next, identify the researcher who proposed the concept of classical conditioning and the researcher who introduced the idea of operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning is the learning process in which a meaningful stimulus is connected with a neutral stimulus that had no special meaning before conditioning. The person gradually reacts to the neutral stimulus with the same behavior as the meaningful one. Pavlov introduced the concept of classical conditioning. In operant conditioning, a person performs some action, and then a response occurs. If the response is pleasurable, the person is likely to repeat the action. If the response is unpleasant, the person is unlikely to repeat the action. Skinner is associated with operant conditioning.
Describe classical and operant conditioning
Correctly describes both types of conditioning
Correctly describes one type of conditioning
Does not describe either type of conditioning or confuses the two types
Name the researchers associated with each
Correctly names Pavlov and Skinner
Correctly names Pavlov or Skinner
Does not name either Pavlov or Skinner or confuses who belongs with each type of conditioning
12. Explain social learning theory. From where did this theory originate, and what does it emphasize? Next, describe the concept of modeling.
Social learning theory is an extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence that other people have over a person's behavior. Even without specific reinforcement, every individual learns many things through observation and imitation of other people. Modeling is the central process of social learning, by which a person observes the actions of others and then copies them.
Explain social learning theory
States that the theory is an offshoot of behaviorism and how everyone learns by observation and imitation
States that everyone learns through observation and imitation
Is vague about the definition of social learning theory
Describe modeling
Clearly describes how modeling is implicit in social learning
Describes imitation but not modeling
Fails to describe modeling
13. List Piaget's four stages of cognitive development in order, and explain what Piaget believed facilitates intellectual advancement.
The four stages are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. According to Piaget, cognitive equilibrium facilitates intellectual advancement because humans seek mental balance. Disequilibrium can cause cognitive growth if people change their thinking through assimilation or accommodation.
List the stages of cognitive development
Lists the four stages in order
Lists three of the stages in order or confuses the order of two of the stages
Lists two or fewer stages or has the stages out of order
Explain causes of intellectual advancement
Understands how people seek cognitive equilibrium and that disequilibrium can cause assimilation or accommodation
Understands that people seek cognitive equilibrium
Does not adequately explain Piaget's beliefs about intellectual advancement
14. Nathalia is a child-care teacher who works primarily with toddlers. Most of the children that Nathalia works with are not yet toilet-trained. Explain the advice a psychoanalyst, behaviorist, and cognitive theorist would give Nathalia regarding her approach to toilet training.
Psychoanalytic theory identifies the first year of life as the oral stage, which occurs before the anal stage (years 1–3). Thus, psychoanalytic theorists believe that toilet training should be postponed until the child is cognitively, emotionally, and biologically ready—around age 2 for daytime training and age 3 for nighttime dryness.A behaviorist would argue that toilet training should occur whenever the parent (or adult) wishes to start, not at a particular age. Praise and reward should be used each time the child uses the toilet, as they will increase the likelihood that the child will successfully use the toilet in the future.A cognitive theorist would suggest that a parent (or adult) wait until the child can understand reasons to urinate and defecate in the toilet.
Explain the advice that each therapist would offer
Accurately explains how each therapist would advise Nathalia on toilet training
Accurately explains how two therapists would advise Nathalia on toilet training
Does not explain how any therapist would advise on toilet training or provides incorrect information
15. List and describe the four theories that have contributed to our understanding of human development.
Psychoanalytic theory has made scientists aware of the importance of social and emotional experiences during early childhood. Behavioral theory (or behaviorism) has shown the effect that immediate responses and associations have on human learning. Cognitive theory helps scientists understand how intellectual processes and thinking affect people's actions. Evolutionary theory suggests that human impulses need to be recognized before they can be guided.
List theories
Lists the four theories: psychoanalytic, behaviorism, cognitive, and evolutionary
Lists three of the theories
Lists one or two of the theories
Describe how theories have contributed to understanding
Describes how each of the four theories has added to our knowledge of development
Describes how two of the theories have added to our knowledge of development
Describes how one of the theories has added to our knowledge of development
16. Imagine that you are interested in the relationship between age and reading ability for children of ages 8 to 12 years. Briefly define the cross-sectional design and summarize how you could test this relationship using that design.
A correlation exists between two variables when one variable changes (increases or decreases) as the other variable changes. Examples will vary but should illustrate this concept, such as the relationship between increased ice cream sales and higher murder rates. It is impossible to determine cause and effect from correlations, because even though correlations indicate a connection between two variables, they cannot determine the reason for the connection, since no other variables are controlled. In the example above, both ice cream sales and murder rates increase at the same time. Therefore, a third variable—heat—may explain this relationship.
Define correlation
Gives an accurate definition of correlation
Gives an adequate definition of correlation
Gives an inaccurate or no definition of correlation
Give an example of a correlation
Offers a good example of a correlation
Offers a vague or weak example of a correlation
Offers an incorrect or no example of a correlation
Explain the relationship between causation and correlation
States that causation cannot be determined from a correlation
Implies that causation can be determined from a correlation
States that causation can be determined from a correlation
17. Differentiate quantitative research from qualitative research. What are the benefits of using qualitative research in developmental psychology?
Quantitative research provides data that can be expressed with numbers, such asranks or scales. Qualitative research, in contrast, relies on open-ended questions, and information is presented in narrative rather than numerical form. Many developmental researchers rely on quantitative research as it reflects cultural and contextual diversity.
Differentiate quantitative and qualitative research
Explains the differences between the two types of research
Provides partial definitions of the two types of research
Does not differentiate the two types of research
Explain the benefits of using qualitative research in developmental psychology
Includes the benefits of using qualitative research
Only includes one benefit associated with qualitative research
Does not include the benefits of qualitative research
18. What are ethics, and why are ethical standards so important to scientific research?
Ethics are a set of moral principles and specific practices that protect both participants and the integrity of research. Ethical standards provide study participants with the assurance of informed consent; the knowledge that their participation is voluntary and confidential; and the promise that they will not be harmed.Ethics are also a vital part of the reporting process after the research has been conducted. Reports of findings should be accurate, and the study should be able to be replicated under the same conditions. Collaboration, replication, and transparency are essential ethical safeguards for all scientists.
Define ethics
Defines ethics
Defines ethics only as they apply to participants or the reporting process
Does not define ethics
Explain the importance of ethics
Explains why ethics are important, including the three ethical safeguards—collaboration, replication, and transparency; states several ways in which ethics protect participants and how ethics protect findings and replication
Identifies only how ethics are important for participants or their importance to the reporting process and replication
Does not explain why ethics are important
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